bloggerrized

Pemain pasar valuta asing | forexjust.com

Pemain pasar valuta asing | forexjust.com

Pemain pasar valuta asing | forexjust.com : - Sent using Google Toolbar

FTTX

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-0ATHc-n8dRTV1KVlV_V3aiTU9qbCAv4BJnWsUEPpe2I0d-GO8ZWTKTUIG58s3JY1-i2D3YwRDzCXsu5cG7QBlrAhXI3U4L20Vdwq9JTMnF4aF9Oxb-6CvlpS_cTiwIgwlOaUm6owHzwn/s1600/fttx.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-0ATHc-n8dRTV1KVlV_V3aiTU9qbCAv4BJnWsUEPpe2I0d-GO8ZWTKTUIG58s3JY1-i2D3YwRDzCXsu5cG7QBlrAhXI3U4L20Vdwq9JTMnF4aF9Oxb-6CvlpS_cTiwIgwlOaUm6owHzwn/s1600/fttx.jpg" /></a></div><h2>Ikhtisar</h2>Serat untuk X (FTTX) mengacu pada jaringan broadband yang menggunakan  serat optik bukan loop logam khas lokal untuk komunikasi data.  Konfigurasi yang berbeda dari FTTX adalah serat ke node (FTTN), serat ke  tepi jalan (FTTC), serat ke ruang bawah tanah (FTTB), dan serat ke  rumah (FTTH). Semua konfigurasi ini secara kolektif dikenal sebagai  serat ke X, dimana X mengacu pada bisnis, tempat, jarak, bangunan, atau  aliran serat.<br />
Serat untuk ruang bawah tanah mengacu pada kabel serat optik yang  membawa data jaringan dari penyedia layanan Internet untuk membangun  pelanggan. Serat ke rumah mengacu pada koneksi jaringan serat berjalan  dari kantor pusat ke rumah. Serat untuk node, juga dikenal sebagai serat  untuk kabinet (FTT Cab) melibatkan arsitektur telekomunikasi yang  dibangun di atas kabel serat optik yang lari ke lemari. Serat untuk  mengekang juga dikenal sebagai FTTK dan arsitektur telekomunikasi  berbasis pada kabel serat optik. Kabel ini lari ke platform tertentu  yang melayani pelanggan lain.<br />
<ul><li>AnimeProviders streaming menggunakan jaringan serat optik meliputi  perusahaan kabel, perusahaan telepon, dan perusahaan listrik. Teknologi  serat menyediakan perusahaan kabel kemampuan untuk menawarkan lebih  banyak saluran dan layanan baru kepada pelanggan. Perusahaan listrik  menggunakan serat untuk mengontrol berbagai jenis komponen dalam  jaringan mereka.<br />
<h2>Manfaat</h2>FTTX menawarkan keandalan yang lebih dan tidak memerlukan komponen  listrik tertentu. Akibatnya, pengguna biaya operasional yang lebih  rendah FTTX pengalaman di berbagai bidang seperti pengadaan,  pemeliharaan, dan perencanaan. FTTX memberikan bandwidth yang cukup dan  kehandalan dengan biaya rendah untuk memenuhi tuntutan konsumen.  Digunakan di semua jaringan operator, FTTX memiliki bandwidth yang  tinggi dan noise yang rendah. Serat ke jaringan X digunakan untuk  koneksi kabel, akses Internet, dan layanan telepon.<br />
<h2>Cara Bekerja</h2>Kabel serat optik diklasifikasikan menjadi dua kategori: modus serat  tunggal dan serat multimode. Sebuah serat single mode adalah koneksi  tunggal yang meninggalkan kantor pusat. Ketika mencapai tujuan, itu  dibagi menjadi serat banyak individu dan didistribusikan ke berbagai  pelanggan.<br />
Teknologi yang digunakan adalah disebut Active Optical Network (AON),  yang membutuhkan peralatan listrik untuk mendistribusikan sinyal ke  switch dan router. Dalam sebuah jaringan optik pasif (PON), sinyal  cahaya dibagi di antara semua pelanggan. Sinyal cahaya yang kemudian  dikonversikan ke sinyal listrik oleh Optical Network Termination (ONT).  ONT memiliki kekuasaan untuk memutuskan untuk menyimpan atau membuang  sinyal tergantung pada tujuan. Ini adalah pendekatan yang paling banyak  digunakan, karena menawarkan bandwidth yang luas untuk pelanggan. Karena  tidak ada komponen aktif antara penyedia dan lokasi pelanggan,  keandalan jaringan juga meningkat.<br />
<h2>Perusahaan / Merek</h2>Enablence dan AFL Telekomunikasi menawarkan solusi jaringan FFTX.<br />
 </li>
</ul>

FTTX

Ikhtisar Serat untuk X (FTTX) mengacu pada jaringan broadband yang menggunakan serat optik bukan loop logam khas lokal untuk komunikasi dat...

Internet Calling - VOIP, Internet Phone Costs, Benefits, Companies & More with Internet Corkboard

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKYbVvTir2JgB75DUe3gzLQae9Lg4xxE9MPUt7awPFCaiGb-ClhumpR4dPmi1lS983sUN6Jl8Vobb5CGdUPhXjaC5kFBAAKz8Quje816ROjHI_vfbwQ_6yX-JYYXUamc4zdDwgGLNc2ppV/s1600/voip.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKYbVvTir2JgB75DUe3gzLQae9Lg4xxE9MPUt7awPFCaiGb-ClhumpR4dPmi1lS983sUN6Jl8Vobb5CGdUPhXjaC5kFBAAKz8Quje816ROjHI_vfbwQ_6yX-JYYXUamc4zdDwgGLNc2ppV/s1600/voip.jpg" /></a></div><a href="http://www.internetcorkboard.com/internet-service-providers/internet-calling/"></a><br />
<h2>Ikhtisar</h2>Suara melalui Internet (VoIP) teknologi transmisi Protokol  memungkinkan Anda untuk membuat panggilan telepon melalui koneksi  Internet broadband Anda. Teknologi ini telah merevolusi komunikasi  pribadi dan bisnis dengan mengurangi biaya dan memperluas pilihan yang  tersedia bagi pengguna.<br />
VoIP menyediakan solusi murah untuk sistem telepon analog  tradisional. Sementara layanan panggilan Internet beberapa mengharuskan  Anda untuk memanggil orang dengan layanan yang sama atau perangkat  lunak, yang lain termasuk fitur yang memungkinkan Anda untuk memanggil  siapa pun di rumah mereka atau telepon genggam. Anda dapat menggunakan  jalur darat untuk mengambil panggilan, atau Anda dapat menerima telepon  sambil berselancar web. Penyedia layanan telepon layanan Internet  menawarkan rencana yang fleksibel dengan kebutuhan unik Anda.<br />
Berikut ini meliputi fitur-fitur yang unik ke VoIP:<br />
<ul><li>Panggilan PC ke PC</li>
<li>PC untuk panggilan telepon (kadang-kadang disebut PC2Phone)</li>
<li>Sel telepon penerusan</li>
<li>Gratis menelepon</li>
<li>Sebuah nomor telepon Internet</li>
<li>Biaya rendah panggilan internasional</li>
<li>Biaya rendah panggilan domestik</li>
<li>Voicemail</li>
<li>Nomor faks</li>
<li>Beberapa saluran telepon</li>
</ul><h2>Manfaat</h2><br />
Teknologi VoIP mengurangi biaya rumah tangga dan bisnis komunikasi,  khususnya untuk jarak penelepon internasional dan panjang. Lebih dari  jalur analog, jarak jauh dan panggilan internasional dapat biaya ratusan  dolar. Sebaliknya, layanan broadband telepon menawarkan gratis untuk  rencana biaya rendah, dan beberapa penyedia bahkan menawarkan panggilan  tidak terbatas untuk tingkat bulanan yang rendah atau biaya tetap.  Sebuah keluarga dapat berbicara lebih banyak dengan keluarga mereka, dan  bisnis dapat mengurangi biaya berkomunikasi dengan klien di luar  negeri, afiliasi, dan mitra.<br />
Panggilan Internet menggunakan layanan digital, yang memiliki  kualitas panggilan yang disempurnakan. Lebih dari jalur analog,  panggilan telepon internasional tidak selalu memberikan suara yang  jernih dan tajam. Layanan telepon VoIP menghilangkan masalah ini. VoIP  juga memungkinkan untuk faks kualitas tinggi dan pilihan video  conferencing.<br />
<h2>Perusahaan / Merek</h2>Empat perusahaan terkemuka yang menyediakan panggilan Internet termasuk Skype, ViaTalk, Lingo, dan Nextiva.<br />
<ul><li> <b><a href="http://www.jdoqocy.com/click-3639931-10576139" target="_blank">Skype</a>:</b>  Skype-to-Skype panggilan adalah gratis apakah Anda menelepon secara  internasional atau lokal. Anda tidak terikat kontrak dengan Skype, dan  instalasi hanya satu klik. Menyediakan layanan digital kualitas suara  yang jernih langsung. Untuk panggilan internasional untuk non-pengguna  Skype, Skype menawarkan kompetitif pay-as-you-go rencana. Seiring dengan  panggilan Internet, Skype menawarkan layanan video gratis ngobrol juga.  Bisnis dapat membuat panggilan konferensi video menggunakan Skype  secara gratis. Anda dapat mendownload Skype secara gratis di situs Web  mereka.<br />
<a href="http://www.tkqlhce.com/click-3639931-10576254" target="_blank"><img alt="" border="0" height="60" src="http://www.lduhtrp.net/image-3639931-10576254" width="468" /></a></li>
<li> <b><a href="http://www.anrdoezrs.net/click-3639931-10410867" target="_blank">ViaTalk</a>:</b>ViaTalk  memberikan rencana panggilan domestik dan internasional untuk pengguna  bisnis dan perumahan. Setiap paket dilengkapi dengan sekitar 40 pilihan,  termasuk caller ID, call forwarding, dan merekam panggilan. ViaTalk  juga memungkinkan pelanggan untuk memeriksa pesan suara melalui telepon  atau online oleh browser atau e-mail. ViaTalk juga menyediakan fitur  opsional termasuk nomor telepon virtual, dukungan kelas bisnis, layanan  bebas pulsa, dan layanan faks. ViaTalk menawarkan rencana penagihan yang  fleksibel mulai dari 1 bulan sampai 24 siklus bulan. Klien perumahan  dan perusahaan dapat memilih dari 500 menit atau rencana terbatas menit.  Rencana Bisnis Terbatas ViaTalk yang mencakup garis faks gratis  sementara rencana perumahan terbatas mereka termasuk dua saluran telepon  dan satu tahun bebas dari layanan. Untuk biaya tambahan, pelanggan  dapat meng-upgrade ke rencana internasional yang mencakup panggilan ke  lebih dari 60 negara di seluruh dunia. Pelanggan dapat memilih untuk  menyediakan peralatan telepon mereka sendiri.<br />
<a href="http://www.dpbolvw.net/click-3639931-10406723" target="_blank"><img alt="VoIP Phone Service" border="0" height="60" src="http://www.awltovhc.com/image-3639931-10406723" width="468" /></a></li>
<li> <b><a href="http://www.kqzyfj.com/click-3639931-10503347" target="_blank">Lingo</a>: </b>Lingo  adalah telepon layanan broadband yang menyediakan rencana untuk rumah  dan bisnis. Untuk bisnis, Lingo menawarkan rencana untuk 500, 2000, dan  menit tak terbatas. Rencana ini termasuk panggilan di AS dan luar  negeri. Lingo juga menawarkan pilihan untuk peralatan gratis, satu bulan  gratis, baris tambahan, dan 30-hari garansi uang kembali. Lingo juga  memungkinkan perusahaan untuk menyimpan nomor telepon mereka saat ini.  Pelanggan perumahan dapat memilih dari dua rencana menelepon. Satu  rencana menawarkan panggilan tidak terbatas ke mana saja di dunia, dan  rencana lainnya menawarkan panggilan tidak terbatas ke mana saja di AS  dan Kanada. Bisnis dan perumahan Lingo yang datang dengan layanan lebih  dari 20 fitur dan manfaat termasuk panggilan tunggu, * 69, kecepatan  dial, dan anonim penolakan panggilan.<br />
<a href="http://www.dpbolvw.net/click-3639931-10667654" target="_blank"><img alt="" border="0" height="60" src="http://www.tqlkg.com/image-3639931-10667654" width="468" /></a></li>
<li> <b><a href="http://www.anrdoezrs.net/click-3639931-10644655" target="_blank">Nextiva</a>:</b>Nextiva  menyediakan dua rencana bisnis. Rencana ini mencakup 25 fitur canggih  dan ideal untuk perusahaan berkembang. Sistem telepon datang dengan  auto-petugas yang diarahkan ke depan dan panggilan. Rencana juga  memungkinkan penelepon untuk membuat dan menjawab panggilan dari ponsel  yang sudah ada atau PC. Pelanggan memiliki pilihan untuk memilih nomor  lokal atau bebas pulsa. Nextiva menyediakan pilihan fleksibel untuk  bisnis tanpa biaya mengatur atau kontrak.<br />
<a href="http://www.anrdoezrs.net/click-3639931-10644664" target="_blank"><img alt="" border="0" height="60" src="http://www.lduhtrp.net/image-3639931-10644664" width="468" /></a></li>
</ul><h2>Cara Bekerja</h2>Teknologi VoIP membutuhkan koneksi broadband dalam bentuk modem  kabel, digital subscriber line (DSL), atau layanan serat optik. Penyedia  panggilan internet mengkonversi suara Anda menjadi sinyal digital yang  dikirimkan melalui koneksi Internet Anda. Seorang pengguna dapat membuat  atau menerima panggilan telepon melalui komputer, headset, atau  peralatan telepon tradisional. Jika Anda menelepon jalur analog, sinyal  telepon akan dikonversi dari digital ke analog. Demikian pula, sinyal  analog akan dikonversikan ke sinyal digital jika pengguna akhir  mengambil panggilan pada saluran VoIP.<br />
Tergantung pada paket layanan Anda, Anda dapat menempatkan dan  menerima panggilan pada komputer atau telepon. Beberapa perangkat lunak  instant messaging akan memungkinkan Anda untuk membuat PC ke PC atau  telepon panggilan video dengan orang di daftar teman Anda. Untuk  panggilan PC ke PC, kedua belah pihak harus terhubung ke penyedia  internet broadband. Untuk PC untuk panggilan telepon, hanya satu pihak  membutuhkan akses internet.

Internet Calling - VOIP, Internet Phone Costs, Benefits, Companies & More with Internet Corkboard

Ikhtisar Suara melalui Internet (VoIP) teknologi transmisi Protokol memungkinkan Anda untuk membuat panggilan telepon melalui koneksi Int...

Broadband - Biaya Internet Kecepatan Tinggi, Manfaat, Perusahaan & Lebih dengan corkboard internet

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiw4QiIMKZNBOYHDh2PFqEiCpSk08GhvHsKANx-0J0DfHhSmS35qXlDgX9Ebe8slmXJDE6qmcUIz-_En7QirGY0gjYNEWN1oecbIgvpZxiV0ZWJd8-ywSydEkWgO8K4x9jpQFFCSdGaE7MQ/s1600/broadband.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiw4QiIMKZNBOYHDh2PFqEiCpSk08GhvHsKANx-0J0DfHhSmS35qXlDgX9Ebe8slmXJDE6qmcUIz-_En7QirGY0gjYNEWN1oecbIgvpZxiV0ZWJd8-ywSydEkWgO8K4x9jpQFFCSdGaE7MQ/s1600/broadband.jpg" /></a></div><h2>Broadband</h2>Broadband mengacu ke jaringan data yang memiliki frekuensi band  besar. Karena band ini luas, beberapa sinyal dapat ditransmisikan pada  waktu yang sama. Suara, video, dan sinyal data dapat dikirim melalui  koneksi broadband tunggal. Koneksi broadband memungkinkan orang untuk  mengakses Internet dengan kecepatan tinggi. Berbagai jenis koneksi  broadband termasuk internet kabel, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL),  satelit, VOIP, T1, dan kabel DS3.<br />
Koneksi broadband telah merevolusi cara orang mengakses Internet.  Pada generasi sebelumnya, orang hanya bisa mengakses Internet melalui  lambat dan mahal layanan dial-up. Sekarang, orang dapat mengakses  internet secara efisien dan cepat dengan biaya terjangkau.<br />
<h2>Kabel</h2>Rencana akses internet kabel yang tersedia melalui penyedia televisi  kabel. Garis kabel yang sama dapat digunakan untuk menonton televisi dan  mengakses Internet. Anda dapat menonton TV, berbicara di telepon, dan  surfing internet secara bersamaan. Koaksial kabel yang mentransfer  sinyal ke televisi Anda juga mentransfer data ke dan dari komputer Anda.  Anda akan membutuhkan modem kabel, router, kartu Ethernet dan router  untuk mengatur jaringan rumah Anda.<br />
<h2>Nirkabel</h2>Akses Internet nirkabel tidak memerlukan kabel atau "kawat." Anda bahkan tidak perlu router untuk beberapa pengguna untuk mengakses layanan nirkabel yang sama. Dengan  Internet nirkabel, Internet Service Provider (ISP) mengirimkan sinyal  sebagai sinyal radio ke menara. Hal ini mirip dengan bagaimana sebuah  operator telepon seluler mendistribusikan sinyal. Banyak penyedia  mengoperasikan menara tersebut, sehingga Internet nirkabel tersedia  secara luas. <br />
<h2>Satelit</h2>Satelit adalah bentuk lain dari layanan broadband yang digunakan  untuk akses Internet kecepatan tinggi. Anda dapat memilih opsi ini  apabila DSL, kabel, atau layanan nirkabel tidak tersedia di wilayah  Anda. Sebuah piring akan dipasang di dekat rumah Anda atau perusahaan  yang mengambil sinyal dikirim dari satelit. Internet satelit cenderung  biaya lebih dari pilihan Internet broadband lainnya.<br />
<h2>DSL</h2>Sebuah Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) koneksi menyediakan akses  Internet kecepatan tinggi. Anda dapat mengakses Internet menggunakan  saluran telepon yang terhubung ke modem di komputer. DSL tidak  mengganggu layanan telepon Anda, dan Anda dapat menggunakan telepon dan  akses Internet pada saat yang sama. Keuntungan lain dari menggunakan DSL  untuk koneksi internet adalah bahwa Anda tidak perlu dial-up setiap  kali Anda ingin terhubung ke Internet. Beberapa pengguna pada jaringan  area lokal (LAN) dapat mengakses Internet secara bersamaan.<br />
<h2>VOIP</h2><br />
Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP) adalah teknologi yang menyediakan  layanan telepon melalui koneksi Internet Anda. Suara diubah menjadi  paket digital dan ditransmisikan melalui Internet. Ketika mencapai  tujuannya, ia diubah kembali menjadi sinyal telepon biasa. Dengan VOIP,  Anda dapat memanggil nomor telepon biasa, dan Anda bahkan dapat  menggunakan peralatan telepon standar Anda. VOIP memungkinkan rencana  biaya rendah panggilan internasional dan nasional.<br />
<h2>T1</h2>Sebuah garis T1 adalah garis telepon yang baik garis tembaga atau  kabel serat optik. Kecepatan transfer data lebih cepat di T1 bila  dibandingkan dengan koneksi dial-up. T1 baris biasanya digunakan dalam  bisnis yang perlu beberapa data dan koneksi suara.<br />
<h2>DS3</h2>Digital Signal 3 (DS3) line adalah koneksi internet kecepatan tinggi  yang menyediakan sangat cepat kecepatan download dan upload. Sebuah DS3  menyediakan pilihan yang terjangkau untuk bisnis yang membutuhkan  koneksi internet lebar band tinggi. Sebuah garis DS3 memiliki 28 garis  T1, dan masing-masing saluran mampu mengirimkan data pada kecepatan 64  Kbps.<br />
<h2>FTTX</h2>Serat untuk X (FTTX) adalah istilah umum untuk setiap arsitektur yang  menggunakan serat optik bukan kabel tembaga biasa untuk komunikasi. Ada  variasi yang berbeda dari FTTX yang diklasifikasikan atas dasar  penggunaan serat. Berbagai jenis FTTX termasuk serat-ke-rumah-(FTTH),  serat-ke-pinggir jalan-(FTTC), serat-to-the-node (FTTN), dan  serat-to-the-lokal (FTTP) .

Broadband - Biaya Internet Kecepatan Tinggi, Manfaat, Perusahaan & Lebih dengan corkboard internet

Broadband Broadband mengacu ke jaringan data yang memiliki frekuensi band besar. Karena band ini luas, beberapa sinyal dapat ditransmisikan...

Layanan Internet

<div class="NoAdsBody"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhl91hpEtaqe0SntL-4433JBOxfu8qkJj90dxkpep0PQZtnFRYmdd0djG3nTJ2Q6Bs3QONNVDOhG3QajQrM19TGy5aXRrxKK1Yla_KI1pbEF4IkgH1jzoTEdTYMz7UADs4FKPmHQWNtQQBa/s1600/internet-service-providers.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhl91hpEtaqe0SntL-4433JBOxfu8qkJj90dxkpep0PQZtnFRYmdd0djG3nTJ2Q6Bs3QONNVDOhG3QajQrM19TGy5aXRrxKK1Yla_KI1pbEF4IkgH1jzoTEdTYMz7UADs4FKPmHQWNtQQBa/s1600/internet-service-providers.jpg" /></a></div><h2>Layanan Internet</h2>Internet Service Provider (ISP) atau Penyedia Akses Internet (IAP)  menawarkan layanan rencana untuk akses Internet. Mereka akan memungut  biaya bulanan atau tahunan dalam pertukaran untuk hak akses internet.  Anda dapat memilih rencana berdasarkan kecepatan internet, dan  kemungkinan besar, telepon yang ada atau penyedia layanan Internet kabel  menawarkan. Anda dapat memilih layanan dial-up atau koneksi broadband  jika Anda membutuhkan kecepatan lebih cepat. Anda akan membutuhkan  perangkat keras termasuk modem, router, kartu nirkabel, dan kabel  jaringan untuk mengakses Internet. ISP Anda mungkin menyediakan ini  untuk Anda sebagai bagian dari langganan Anda.<br />
<h2>Broadband</h2>Broadband adalah istilah generik yang mengacu pada lebar pita yang  mentransfer sinyal secara bersamaan. Sebuah band tunggal dapat digunakan  untuk mentransfer data, suara, dan sinyal digital. Digital Subscriber  Lines (DSL), kabel, T1, DS3, dan Fiber-to-the-X (FTTX) beberapa mode  digunakan untuk koneksi internet broadband. Sebuah koneksi broadband  jauh lebih cepat daripada dial-up internet. Jika Anda mentransfer  sejumlah besar data termasuk musik, gambar, atau video, Anda mungkin  akan ingin internet broadband. Dengan Internet broadband, Anda dapat  dengan mudah streaming acara televisi dan transfer data. Anda juga dapat  menggunakan saluran telepon Anda saat online. Voice over Internet  Protocol (VOIP) menawarkan layanan telepon melalui koneksi internet  broadband Anda.<br />
Cara lain untuk akses Internet broadband adalah melalui satelit.  Dalam metode ini, piring mengirim dan menerima sinyal digital. Ini jenis  akses internet tidak lebih baik jika Anda berada di daerah pedesaan  dimana pilihan-pilihan lain mungkin tidak tersedia.<br />
Kabel akses internet disediakan oleh operator TV kabel. Sinyal  televisi dan sinyal data yang ditransmisikan melalui kabel yang sama.  Filter yang hadir dalam kabel yang memisahkan sinyal-sinyal, sehingga  Anda dapat menonton televisi dan akses internet pada saat yang sama.<br />
<h2>Dial-Up</h2>Jika Anda ingin terhubung ke Internet menggunakan dial-up akses  Internet, maka Anda memerlukan saluran telepon dan modem. Ini jenis  akses Internet sangat banyak digunakan karena saluran telepon secara  universal tersedia. Saluran telepon terhubung ke modem di komputer.  Modem ini dapat berupa internal atau eksternal. Bila Anda ingin akses ke  Internet, Anda harus dial nomor yang diberikan oleh Internet Service  Provider. Melalui saluran telepon, Anda akan membangun koneksi dengan  ISP yang akan memungkinkan Anda untuk mengakses Internet. Dial-up  internet tersedia secara luas, tetapi lambat, dan Anda tidak dapat  membuat panggilan telepon ketika Anda sedang online.<br />
<h2>Internet Perangkat Keras</h2>Untuk mengakses Internet, Anda akan memerlukan modem, komputer,  router dan kabel yang relevan. Untuk akses dial-up, Anda akan memerlukan  modem dial-up dan kabel telepon. Untuk akses broadband, Anda akan  memerlukan modem yang relevan dan kabel Ethernet. Jika Anda ingin  mengakses Internet secara bersamaan dari lebih dari satu komputer, Anda  akan perlu untuk membuat sebuah jaringan area lokal (LAN) untuk Internet  broadband Anda. Untuk mengatur LAN, Anda akan memerlukan router, LAN  card, dan kabel Ethernet untuk setiap komputer. Anda juga dapat membeli  router nirkabel. Jika komputer Anda memiliki kartu nirkabel, mereka  dapat bergabung dalam jaringan ini. Router telah dibangun pada pilihan  privasi yang memungkinkan Anda untuk membatasi akses. Dengan perangkat  keras komputer yang tepat, Anda dapat meningkatkan kecepatan transmisi  data.</div>

Layanan Internet

Layanan Internet Internet Service Provider (ISP) atau Penyedia Akses Internet (IAP) menawarkan layanan rencana untuk akses Internet. Mereka...

Top 7 Internet Businesses to Start in 2012.

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">The U.S. needs more startups to stay competitive, a Federal Reserve official said Thursday.<br /><br />Dennis  Lockhart, the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of  Atlanta, spoke  at the Conference on Small Business and Entrepreneurship  in Washington  and had this to say, “If we want to grow jobs, one place  we should look  is to startups and young businesses, especially  scalable-growth  businesses that often set out to commercialize  innovation,”<br /><br />He  noted that research shows that with regard to job creation, its  new  businesses that make the most difference in creating jobs. He cited  a  2010 Kauffman Foundation study showing that just one percent of  employer  businesses–those growing the fastest–generate roughly 40  percent of  new jobs in a given year. Three-quarters of those businesses  are less  than five years old.<br /><br />Finally  a government official saying something I agree with! The key  to our  economic recovery lies in the hands of entrepreneurs. Not big  companies!<br /><br />But  if you want to help the economy and your bank account what  businesses  are best to start-up? Here’s a list of the top seven  internet businesses  set to soar in 2012.<br /><br /><b>1.    E-commerce</b><br /><br />E-commerce  simply refers to online businesses that sell a product or  service. When  deciding what product or service to sell keep in mind  the best sellers  are always the ones that solve customers’ problems.  Hair ties solve bad  hair days. Fishing lures solve the lack of catching  fish.<br /><br />Can’t  think of a product to sell? No problem, join an affiliate  program.  Affiliates are entrepreneurs who make commissions every time  they make a  sale of another company’s product/service. Most affiliate  programs  offer commissions of 50 percent or higher! It’s a great way  for new  businesses to make some easy cash before they get their own  products up  and running.<br /><br />As  an added bonus most affiliate programs are free to join. Once you  sign  up you get your own affiliate code to track how many units you  are  selling. As an affiliate you don’t have to deal with answering  customer  questions or billing issues. You just sit back and collect a  check each  time a sale is made.<br /><br /><b>2.    Information Marketing</b><br /><br />This  type of internet business doesn’t sell products or services, it  only  sells information. If you are pretty well versed about a  particular  topic then this is the type of business you should start.  Write manuals  and how to guides for customers to buy about anything  related to your  niche. This is a great business because your product  development costs  are virtually zero. You never have to pay for  packaging or shipping  because all of your information can be sent  electronically.<br /><br /><b>3.    Cater to Baby-boomers</b><br /><br />The  biggest demographic group in the United States is baby-boomers.  They  also currently have the biggest purchasing power of any age group  as  well. So it makes sense to start a business that targets them and  their  needs.<br /><br />These  aging Americans will do just about anything to hold onto their  youth.  They are particularly interested in beauty treatments,  nutrition and  pain relief. Look for products like anti-aging, joint  pain relievers and  supplements to capture these boomers retirement  dollars. The best part  is these types of products don’t have to have  FDA approval which cuts  through a lot of the governmental red tape.<br /><br /><b>4.    Consultants</b><br /><br />A  lot of times people are too scared to become internet business  owners  because they don’t think they have anything that anyone wants.  That  couldn’t be farther from the truth. All of us have acquired skills  over  our careers that others are willing to pay us for. This is  especially  true if you’ve ever worked in the service industry.  Accountants,  lawyers, customer service representatives will always be  in demand.<br /><br />Even  if you haven’t spent any of your career in the service industry  there  are still plenty of opportunities for you to sell your knowledge  to  other businesses. You just need to look at your skills as an asset.   Think about how you can help other businesses improve. Being a   consultant can be a part-time or full-time money making job. You can add   it to the other product/information you sell or make it your sole   business.<br /><br /><b>5.    Cater to the current baby boom</b><br /><br />All  good business owners are constantly on the lookout for  new  market  niches they can sell to. The fastest growing niche? The current  baby  boom. New parents will pay hand over foot for toys, electronics,   nutrition, and anything that will make their child better, faster,   smarter than the neighbor’s child.<br /><br />6.    Business to Business. Services for internet business owners. Web design, hosting, accounting, writing, editing,<br /><br />An  often forgotten way of doing business is between companies rather  than  between companies and customers. Although early interest centered  on the  growth of e-commerce, forecasts are that B2B revenue will far  exceed  business-to-consumers revenue in 2012. Entrepreneurs that focus  on  selling products/services/information/consulting to other internet   businesses will see the most profit. Services like web design, hosting,   writing, editing, blogging, product development, marketing, etc will   always be in demand between businesses. If you can get a couple of   clients on board you can quickly build a reputation that will far out   way your work scope.<br /><br /><b>7.    Social media management. </b><br /><br />Social media has given us a whole new set of marketing channels to master. When we were in school no one was teaching us how to make money with Twitter,   Facebook, or LinkedIn. We’ve had to figure it out ourselves. Some   businesses still haven’t quite figured it out. Those of us that   understand that social media is an ongoing conversation and a way to   interact with our customers have the opportunity to help other   businesses with their social media efforts. You don’t have to be a 15   year old to get this business. You just need to understand the   fundamentals of social media. When you do you can offer up your services   to companies big and small, to teach them how to best utilize social   media to benefit their business.<br /><br />By  no means is this meant to be an exhaustive list of all the types  of  internet businesses one can start and be profitable with. It is  meant to  be a list of the EASTIEST and most PROFITABLE types of  businesses  entrepreneurs can start in 2012. My efforts are solely based  on my  desire to help you line your pockets with cash. I hope you  prosper in  2012.</div>

Top 7 Internet Businesses to Start in 2012.

The U.S. needs more startups to stay competitive, a Federal Reserve official said Thursday. Dennis Lockhart, the president of the Federal R...

Land and Power

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div id="content-header"><h1 class="title with-subtitle"></h1><h2 class="title subtitle">The growing scandal surrounding the new wave of investments in land</h2></div><div class="content"><b>The new wave of land deals is not the new investment in  agriculture that millions had been waiting for. The poorest people are  being hardest hit as competition for land intensifies. Oxfam’s research  has revealed that residents regularly lose out to local elites and  domestic or foreign investors because they lack the power to claim their  rights effectively and to defend and advance their interests.</b><br /><br />Companies and governments must take urgent steps to improve land  rights outcomes for people living in poverty. Power relations between  investors and local communities must also change if investment is to  contribute to rather than undermine the food security and livelihoods of  local communities.<br /><br /><h3>Key recommendations</h3><ul><li><b>The rights of the communities affected by these deals must be respected</b>  and their grievances addressed, and those who are profiting from the  international deals must help to ensure this happens. Those financing  and sourcing from land acquisition projects, and companies further down  the value chain, must use their influence to ensure that this happens.</li><br /><li><b>The balance of power must be shifted</b> in favor of  local rights-holders and communities. Governments should adopt strong,  internationally-applicable standards on good governance relating to land  tenure and management of natural resources.</li><br /><li><b>Host governments should respect and protect all existing land use rights</b>,  and ensure that the principle of free, prior, and informed consent is  followed and that women have equal rights to access and control over  land.</li><br /><li><b>Investors should respect all existing land use rights.</b>  They should make sure that the principle of free, prior, and informed  consent is followed in all agreements, as well as seeking alternatives  to the transfer of land rights from small-scale food producers.</li><br /><li><b>Financiers and buyers should accept full supply-chain responsibility.</b>  They should require all agricultural operations that they finance or  use as suppliers to follow the principles set out above, and remedy  existing problems.</li><br /><li><b>Home country governments should require companies investing overseas to fully disclose their activities</b>,  and ensure that standards and safeguards are implemented to protect  small-scale food producers and local populations, including through  development finance organizations.</li><br /></ul><div id="tags"><div class="item-list"><div id="content-header"><h1 class="title with-subtitle">Tanah dan Power</h1><h2 class="title subtitle">Skandal tumbuh sekitar gelombang baru investasi di tanah</h2></div><b>Gelombang baru dari penawaran tanah bukanlah investasi baru  di bidang pertanian bahwa jutaan telah menunggu. Orang-orang miskin  sedang yang paling terpukul karena persaingan untuk mengintensifkan  lahan. Penelitian Oxfam telah mengungkapkan bahwa warga teratur kalah  dengan elit lokal dan investor domestik maupun asing karena mereka tidak  memiliki kekuatan untuk mengklaim hak-hak mereka secara efektif dan  untuk membela dan memajukan kepentingan mereka.</b><br /><br />Perusahaan dan pemerintah harus mengambil langkah mendesak untuk  meningkatkan hak atas tanah hasil untuk orang-orang yang hidup dalam  kemiskinan. Kekuatan hubungan antara investor dan masyarakat lokal juga  harus berubah jika investasi untuk berkontribusi daripada merusak  keamanan pangan dan mata pencaharian masyarakat lokal.<br /><br /><h3>Kunci rekomendasi</h3><ul><li><b>Hak-hak masyarakat yang terkena dampak transaksi ini harus dihormati</b>  dan keluhan mereka ditangani, dan mereka yang mengambil keuntungan dari  transaksi internasional harus membantu untuk memastikan hal ini  terjadi. Mereka pembiayaan dan sumber dari proyek-proyek akuisisi tanah,  dan perusahaan lebih bawah rantai nilai, harus menggunakan pengaruh  mereka untuk memastikan bahwa hal ini terjadi.</li><br /><li><b>Keseimbangan kekuasaan harus bergeser</b> mendukung  hak-pemegang lokal dan komunitas. Pemerintah harus mengadopsi kuat,  standar internasional yang berlaku tentang tata pemerintahan yang baik  yang berkaitan dengan penguasaan lahan dan pengelolaan sumber daya alam.</li><br /><li><b>Pemerintah tuan rumah harus menghormati dan melindungi semua hak penggunaan lahan yang ada</b>,  Dan memastikan bahwa prinsip bebas, persetujuan, dan informasi adalah  diikuti dan bahwa wanita memiliki hak yang sama untuk akses dan kontrol  atas tanah.</li><br /><li><b>Investor harus menghormati semua hak guna lahan yang ada.</b>  Mereka harus memastikan bahwa prinsip persetujuan bebas, didahulukan,  dan diinformasikan diikuti dalam semua perjanjian, serta alternatif  berusaha untuk pengalihan hak tanah dari skala kecil produsen makanan.</li><br /><li><b>Pemodal dan pembeli harus menerima penuh tanggung jawab rantai pasokan.</b>  Mereka harus mewajibkan semua operasi pertanian yang mereka keuangan  atau digunakan sebagai pemasok untuk mengikuti prinsip-prinsip diatas,  dan obat masalah yang ada.</li><br /><li><b>Rumah pemerintah negara harus mewajibkan perusahaan investasi luar negeri untuk sepenuhnya mengungkapkan kegiatan mereka</b>,  Dan memastikan bahwa standar dan perlindungan diimplementasikan untuk  melindungi produsen makanan skala kecil dan penduduk lokal, termasuk  melalui organisasi keuangan pembangunan.</li><br /></ul><div id="dropin-items"><div id="attachments"><div id="attachments-inner"><div class="item-list"><h3>Downloads</h3><ul id="attachments-list"><li class="first"><div class="file-item"><div class="file-item-item file-icon"><img alt="bp151-land-power-rights-acquisitions-220911-summ-en.pdf" height="48" src="http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/themes/oxizen/images/icons/pdf.png" title="Land and Power: The growing scandal surrounding the new wave of investments in land (summary)" width="48" /></div><div class="file-item-item file-data"><div class="file-link"><a href="http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bp151-land-power-rights-acquisitions-220911-summ-en.pdf">Land and Power: The growing scandal surrounding the new wave of investments in land (summary)</a></div><div class="file-size">153.5 KB</div></div></div></li><br /><li class="last"><div class="file-item"><div class="file-item-item file-icon"><img alt="bp151-land-power-rights-acquisitions-220911-en.pdf" height="48" src="http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/themes/oxizen/images/icons/pdf.png" title="Land and Power: The growing scandal surrounding the new wave of investments in land" width="48" /></div><div class="file-item-item file-data"><div class="file-link"><a href="http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bp151-land-power-rights-acquisitions-220911-en.pdf">Land and Power: The growing scandal surrounding the new wave of investments in land</a></div><div class="file-size">548.51 KB</div></div></div></li><br /></ul></div></div></div></div><br /><br /><ul></ul></div></div></div></div>

Land and Power

The growing scandal surrounding the new wave of investments in land The new wave of land deals is not the new investment in agriculture tha...

Oxfam menyerukan perusahaan kelapa sawit untuk memperbaiki pelanggaran hak-hak masyarakat di Indonesia

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div id="dropin-items"><div class="pullquotes"><div class="quote">“If Sime Darby doesn’t budge, it should feel the consequences. The affected farmers have that right”</div><cite></cite><br /><br /><div class="quotee">Farah Karimi</div><div class="quoteorg">General Director of Oxfam Novib (Netherlands)</div><div class="quoteorg"></div></div></div><div id="content-area"><div class="node node node-type-oxpressrelease" id="node-7475"><div class="node-inner"><div class="content"><b>Oxfam  menuntut bahwa Malaysia multinasional, Sime Darby, kesalahan hak cepat  di perkebunan pohon kelapa sawit di Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia.</b><br /><br />Dalam laporannya <b><a href="http://www.oxfam.org/en/grow/policy/land-and-power">Tanah dan Power</a></b>  dipublikasikan bulan lalu, Oxfam mengungkapkan sengketa panjang-berdiri  di sebuah perkebunan kelapa sawit milik Sime Darby, yang berasal dari  Sime Darby sebelum membeli perkebunan. Meskipun janji sejak 2007, Sime  Darby belum mengambil tindakan untuk memperbaiki situasi.<br /><br /><b>Kecuali Sime Darby menghasilkan rencana aksi konkret</b>  untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut dengan 23 Oktober, Oxfam akan  mengajukan keluhan resmi kepada Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil  (RSPO) yang Sime Darby menjadi anggota. RSPO adalah sebuah kemitraan  global produsen, pedagang dan produsen merek yang menggunakan kelapa  sawit dalam produk mereka. Anggota RSPO telah berjanji untuk membuat  produksi minyak sawit berkelanjutan dengan mengikuti standar global  untuk produksi dan pembelian. Oxfam adalah anggota RSPO untuk memastikan  bahwa kepentingan masyarakat setempat, petani kecil dan buruh, yang  dibahas dalam produksi minyak sawit.<br /><br /><b>Pekan lalu keluhan diajukan di RSPO</b> terhadap Sime  Darby oleh kelompok kampanye internasional, Forest Peoples Programme,  bersama dengan organisasi Liberia. Di Liberia Sime Darby juga dituduh  ilegal penyitaan tanah dari petani lokal, yang melanggar prosedur RSPO.<br /><br />Farah Karimi, direktur umum dari Oxfam Novib (Belanda) berkata:  "Tidak dapat diterima untuk perusahaan-perusahaan minyak sawit seperti  Sime Darby untuk mengabaikan hak-hak dan kebutuhan masyarakat setempat.  Anggota Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil bersatu dalam pengakuan  mereka bahwa sesuatu telah berubah di sektor minyak sawit. Sekarang  adalah waktu untuk bertindak. "<br /><br />Oxfam telah menjadi anggota aktif RSPO selama tujuh tahun dan  membantu menciptakan prosedur pengaduan yang memungkinkan masyarakat  untuk mengeluh secara langsung tentang pelanggaran. Prosedur ini penting  karena banyak penguasa lokal dan sistem hukum di negara-negara yang  terlibat dalam produksi minyak kelapa sawit tidak menjunjung hak-hak  masyarakat dalam sengketa tanah.<br /><br /><b>"Kami bergabung RSPO karena tidak ada pilihan lain</b>  bagi masyarakat untuk mengklaim hak-hak mereka. Semua anggota RSPO telah  berkomitmen untuk operasi yang berkelanjutan. Sekarang saatnya untuk  panggilan ke account anggota yang melanggar komitmen ini. Ada prosedur  keluhan dan mekanisme sanksi. Jika Sime Darby tidak bergerak, harus  merasakan akibatnya. Para petani yang terkena hak itu, "kata Karimi.<br /><br />Sime Darby telah menyatakan bahwa tujuannya adalah untuk  menyelesaikan kasus ini secepat mungkin. Oxfam akan terus memantau Sime  Darby kritis, bersama-sama dengan anggota lain dari RSPO, termasuk  organisasi Indonesia, Sawit Watch, yang secara langsung mendukung  orang-orang di Kalimantan Barat.<br /><br /><div class="field field-type-text field-field-notestoeditors"><div class="field-label"><h3 class="title">Catatan untuk Editor</h3></div><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item odd"><ol><li><b>Pada pertengahan 1990-an anak perusahaan saat Sime Darby</b>mulai  perkebunan kelapa sawit di Kabupaten Sanggau di Barat Kalimintan. Dua  puluh empat komunitas kehilangan bagian besar dari tanah mereka. Isu-isu  utama yang mendasari dalam konflik ini adalah: <ul><li><b>Peruntukan lahan berdasarkan informasi palsu.</b>  Masyarakat diberitahu bahwa mereka akan sewa tanah kepada perusahaan  untuk lingkaran kehidupan pohon palem (25 tahun) dan menandatangani  surat-surat yang mereka pikir merupakan sewa di tanah mereka. Tapi  surat-surat memungkinkan perusahaan untuk memiliki status tanah berubah,  sesuatu yang masyarakat tidak menyadari.</li><br /><li><b>Janji yang belum terpenuhi.</b> Sebagai imbalan  perusahaan berjanji untuk membangun fasilitas, seperti jalan, sekolah,  rumah dan klinik. Hanya beberapa dari fasilitas tersebut telah dibangun.</li><br /><li><b>Skema tanah.</b> Dari 7,5 hektar bahwa setiap keluarga  menyerahkan mereka dijanjikan untuk mendapatkan 2 hektar kembali,  ditanami dengan kelapa sawit. Namun dalam praktek dan untuk beberapa  alasan sebagian besar keluarga mendapat kurang yang tidak cukup untuk  hidup dari.</li><br /></ul>Sime Darby mengklaim bahwa undang-undang nasional dipenuhi pada waktu itu.</li><br /><li><b>Internasional Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil</b>  adalah upaya bersama oleh banyak stakeholder yang terlibat dalam  industri kelapa sawit termasuk produsen, prosesor, produsen, pengecer,  investor dan LSM lingkungan dan pembangunan. RSPO merupakan 50% dari  produksi global, dan diperkirakan 15% dari pasar. Hal ini mendorong  produksi dan penggunaan minyak sawit berkelanjutan melalui transparansi  pasar swa-regulasi, dan multi-stakeholder dialog.</li><br /><li><b>Pada tanggal 22 September, Oxfam meluncurkan sebuah laporan baru yang besar, <a href="http://www.oxfam.org/en/grow/policy/land-and-power" rel="nofollow">Tanah dan Power</a></b>  menyoroti laju pertumbuhan transaksi tanah ditengahi seluruh dunia,  dengan sebanyak 227 juta hektar dijual, disewakan atau berlisensi dalam  skala besar ke tanah sejak tahun 2001. Beberapa transaksi adalah dalam  'perampasan tanah' fakta dimana hak-hak dan kebutuhan masyarakat yang  tinggal di tanah diabaikan, meninggalkan mereka tunawisma dan tanpa  lahan cukup untuk tumbuh cukup makanan untuk makan dan mencari nafkah.</li><br /></ol></div></div></div><div id="tags"><div class="item-list"></div></div></div><div class="links"></div></div></div></div><div class="block block-shurly_integration region-odd odd region-count-1 count-9 no-subject" id="block-shurly_integration-0"><div class="block-inner"><div class="content"><b>Permalink: </b> <a href="http://oxf.am/4HU">http://oxf.am/4HU</a>  </div></div></div></div>

Oxfam menyerukan perusahaan kelapa sawit untuk memperbaiki pelanggaran hak-hak masyarakat di Indonesia

“If Sime Darby doesn’t budge, it should feel the consequences. The affected farmers have that right” Farah Karimi General Director of Oxfam ...

Hydroponics

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div id="MainTxt"><span class="hw"></span><br /><br /><dl><dd><i>For the Soup Dragons album, see Hydrophonic.</i></dd></dl><div class="outerpic tright" style="border-left: 15px solid white; width: 319px;"> <div class="pic" style="border: 1px solid gray; width: 304px;"><a href=""><img alt="" border="0" class="thumbimage" height="205" src="http://img2.tfd.com/wiki/b/b3/Hydroponic_onions_nasa.jpg" width="300" /><img alt="Enlarge picture" border="0" height="12" src="http://img.thefreedictionary.com/wiki/enlarge.gif" style="float: right;" width="16" /></a> <div class="imgcaption"> NASA researcher checking hydroponic onions with Bibb lettuce to his left and radishes to the right</div></div></div><b>Hydroponics</b> (From the Greek words <i>hydro</i>, water and <i>ponos</i>, labor) is a method of growing <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Plant">plants</a> using mineral <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Nutrient">nutrient</a>  solutions, in water, without soil. Terrestrial plants may be grown with  their roots in the mineral nutrient solution only or in an inert  medium, such as <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Perlite">perlite</a>, <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Gravel">gravel</a>, <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Mineral+wool">mineral wool</a>, or coconut husk.<br /><br />Researchers  discovered in the 19th century that plants absorb essential mineral  nutrients as inorganic ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts  as a mineral nutrient reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to  plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil dissolve in water,  plant roots are able to absorb them. When the required mineral nutrients  are introduced into a plant's water supply artificially, soil is no  longer required for the plant to thrive. Almost any terrestrial plant  will grow with hydroponics. Hydroponics is also a standard technique in  biology research and teaching.<br /><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>The earliest published work on growing terrestrial plants without soil was the 1627 book, <i>Sylva Sylvarum</i> by Sir <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Francis+Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, printed a year after his death. Water culture became a popular research technique after that. In 1699, <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/John+Woodward+%28naturalist%29">John Woodward</a>  published his water culture experiments with spearmint. He found that  plants in less pure water sources grew better than plants in distilled  water. By 1842 a list of nine elements believed to be essential to plant  growth had been made out, and the discoveries of the German botanists, <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Julius+von+Sachs">Julius von Sachs</a> and Wilhelm Knop, in the years 1859-65, resulted in a development of the technique of soilless cultivation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-references_0-0"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-references-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup>  Growth of terrestrial plants without soil in mineral nutrient solutions  was called solution culture. It quickly became a standard research and  teaching technique and is still widely used today. Solution culture is  now considered a type of hydroponics where there is no inert medium.<br /><br />In  1929, Professor William Frederick Gericke of the University of  California at Berkeley began publicly promoting that solution culture be  used for agricultural crop production.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> He first termed it aquaculture but later found that <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Aquaculture">aquaculture</a>  was already applied to culture of aquatic organisms. Gericke created a  sensation by growing tomato vines twenty-five feet high in his back yard  in mineral nutrient solutions rather than soil.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> By analogy with the <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Ancient+Greek">ancient Greek</a> term for agriculture, geoponics, the science of cultivating the earth, Gericke introduced the term <i>hydroponics</i>  in 1937 (although he asserts that the term was suggested by Dr. W. A.  Setchell, of the University of California) for the culture of plants in  water (from the Greek <i>hydros</i>, "water", and <i>ponos</i>, "labor").<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-references_0-1"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-references-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><br /><br />Reports  of Gericke's work and his claims that hydroponics would revolutionize  plant agriculture prompted a huge number of requests for further  information. Gericke refused to reveal his secrets claiming he had done  the work at home on his own time. This refusal eventually resulted in  his leaving the University of California. In 1940, he wrote the book, <i>Complete Guide to Soilless Gardening.</i><br /><br />Two other plant nutritionists at the University of California were asked to research Gericke's claims. <a class="external text" href="http://pmb.berkeley.edu/newpmb/faculty/hoagland/NAS_Memoir.pdf">Dennis R. Hoagland</a> and <a class="external text" href="http://pmb.berkeley.edu/newpmb/faculty/deceased.shtml">Daniel I. Arnon</a> wrote a classic 1938 agricultural bulletin, <i>The Water Culture Method for Growing Plants Without Soil,</i><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup>  debunking the exaggerated claims made about hydroponics. Hoagland and  Arnon found that hydroponic crop yields were no better than crop yields  with good quality soils. Crop yields were ultimately limited by factors  other than mineral nutrients, especially light. This research, however,  overlooked the fact that hydroponics has other advantages including the  fact that the roots of the plant have constant access to oxygen and that  the plants have access to as much or as little water as they need. This  is important as one of the most common errors when growing is over- and  under- watering; and hydroponics prevents this from occurring as large  amounts of water can be made available to the plant and any water not  used, drained away, recirculated, or actively aerated, eliminating  anoxic conditions which drown root systems in soil. In soil, a grower  needs to be very experienced to know exactly how much water to feed the  plant. Too much and the plant will not be able to access oxygen; too  little and the plant will lose the ability to transport nutrients, which  are typically moved into the roots while in solution.<br /><br />These two  researchers developed several formulas for mineral nutrient solutions,  known as Hoagland solution. Modified Hoagland solutions are still used  today.<br /><br />One of the early successes of hydroponics occurred on <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Wake+Island">Wake Island</a>,  a rocky atoll in the Pacific Ocean used as a refueling stop for Pan  American Airlines. Hydroponics was used there in the 1930s to grow  vegetables for the passengers. Hydroponics was a necessity on Wake  Island because there was no soil, and it was prohibitively expensive to  airlift in fresh vegetables.<br /><br />In the 1960s, Allen Cooper of England developed the Nutrient film technique. <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/The+Land+%28Disney%29">The Land Pavilion</a>  at Walt Disney World's EPCOT Center opened in 1982 and prominently  features a variety of hydroponic techniques. In recent decades, <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/NASA">NASA</a> has done extensive hydroponic research for their <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Controlled+Ecological+Life+Support+System">Controlled Ecological Life Support System</a>  or CELSS. Hydroponics intended to take place on Mars are using LED  lighting to grow in different color spectrum with much less heat.<br /><br />In  1978, hydroponics pioneer Dr. Howard Resh published the first edition  of his book "Hydroponics Food Production." This book (now updated)  spurred what has become known as the 3-part base nutrients formula that  is still a major component of today's hydroponics gardening. Resh later  went on to publish other books, and is currently in charge of a highly  advanced hydroponics research and production facility in the Caribbean.<br /><br />In the last few years, the popularity in the hydroponics marketplace has increased rapidly.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><br /><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Origin">Origin</span></h2><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Soilless_culture">Soilless culture</span></h3>Gericke  originally defined hydroponics as crop growth in mineral nutrient  solutions, with no solid medium for the roots. He objected in print to  people who applied the term hydroponics to other types of soilless  culture such as sand culture and gravel culture. The distinction between  hydroponics and soilless culture of plants has often been blurred.  Soilless culture is a broader term than hydroponics; it only requires  that no soils with clay or silt are used. Note that <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Sand">sand</a>  is a type of soil yet sand culture is considered a type of soilless  culture. Hydroponics is a subset of soilless culture. Many types of  soilless culture do not use the mineral nutrient solutions required for  hydroponics.<br /><br />Billions of container plants are produced annually,  including fruit, shade and ornamental trees, shrubs, forest seedlings,  vegetable seedlings, bedding plants, herbaceous perennials and vines.  Most container plants are produced in soilless media, representing  soilless culture. However, most are not hydroponics because the soilless  medium often provides some of the mineral nutrients via slow release  fertilizers, cation exchange and decomposition of the organic medium  itself. Most soilless media for container plants also contain organic  materials such as <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Peat">peat</a>  or composted bark, which provide some nitrogen to the plant. Greenhouse  growth of plants in peat bags is often termed hydroponics, but  technically it is not because the medium provides some of the mineral  nutrients.<br /><br />Plants that are not traditionally grown in a climate  would be possible to grow using a controlled environment system like  hydroponics. During World War II produce was grown with hydroponics on  the barren Pacific Islands. According to a 1938 Times magazine article,  this was one of the first times that commercial use of hydroponics was  used on such a large scale to feed people. This group of islands was  used as a refueling stop for Pan-Am Airways and the food was used to  feed the staff and crew. This means that salad greens could possibly be  grown in Antarctica or even the Mojave Desert. NASA has also looked to  utilize hydroponics in the space program. Ray Wheeler, plant  physiologist at Kennedy Space Center’s Space Life Science Lab, believes  that hydroponics will create advances within space travel. He terms this  as “a life support system with the biological component of growing  plants—called a bioregenerative life support system. It has several  benefits for NASA.” These Scientists are researching how different  amounts of light, temperature and carbon dioxide, along with plant  species can be grown and cultivated on planets like Mars.<br /><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Advantages">Advantages</span></h2>Some of the reasons why hydroponics is being adapted around the world for food production are the following:<br /><br /><ul><li>No soil is needed</li><br /><li>The water stays in the system and can be reused- thus, lower water costs</li><br /><li>It is possible to control the nutrition levels in their entirety- thus, lower nutrition costs</li><br /><li>No nutrition pollution is released into the environment because of the controlled system</li><br /><li>Stable and high yields</li><br /><li>Pests and diseases are easier to get rid of than in soil because of the container's mobility</li><br /></ul>Today, hydroponics is an established branch of <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Agronomy">agronomy</a>.  Progress has been rapid, and results obtained in various countries have  proved it to be thoroughly practical and to have very definite  advantages over conventional methods of <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Horticulture">horticulture</a>.  The two chief merits of the soil-less cultivation of plants are, first,  much higher crop yields, and second, hydroponics can be used in places  where in-ground agriculture or gardening is not possible.<br /><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</span></h2>The hydroponic conditions (presence of fertilizer and high humidity) create an environment that stimulates <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Salmonella">salmonella</a> growth.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup>  Other disadvantages include pathogen attacks such as damp-off due to  Verticillium wilt caused by the high moisture levels associated with  hydroponics and overwatering of soil based plants. Also, many hydroponic  plants require different fertilizers and containment systems<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup><br /><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Techniques">Techniques</span></h2>The  two main types of hydroponics are solution culture and medium culture.  Solution culture does not use a solid medium for the roots, just the  nutrient solution. The three main types of solution culture are static  solution culture, continuous flow solution culture and aeroponics. The  medium culture method has a solid medium for the roots and is named for  the type of medium, e.g. sand culture, gravel culture or rockwool  culture. There are two main variations for each medium, subirrigation  and top <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Irrigation">irrigation</a>.  For all techniques, most hydroponic reservoirs are now built of plastic  but other materials have been used including concrete, glass, metal,  vegetable solids and wood. The containers should exclude light to  prevent algae growth in the nutrient solution.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Static_solution_culture">Static solution culture</span></h3>In  static solution culture, plants are grown in containers of nutrient  solution, such as glass Mason jars (typically in-home applications),  plastic buckets, tubs or tanks. The solution is usually gently aerated  but may be unaerated. If unaerated, the solution level is kept low  enough that enough roots are above the solution so they get adequate  oxygen. A hole is cut in the lid of the reservoir for each plant. There  can be one to many plants per reservoir. Reservoir size can be increased  as plant size increases. A homemade system can be constructed from  plastic food containers or glass canning jars with <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Aeration">aeration</a>  provided by an aquarium pump, aquarium airline tubing and aquarium  valves. Clear containers are covered with aluminium foil, butcher paper,  black plastic or other material to exclude light, thus helping to  eliminate the formation of algae. The nutrient solution is either  changed on a schedule, such as once per week, or when the concentration  drops below a certain level as determined with an <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/EC+meter">electrical conductivity meter</a>. Whenever the solution is depleted below a certain level, either water or fresh nutrient solution is added, A <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Mariotte%27s+bottle">Mariotte's bottle</a>,  or a float valve, can be used to automatically maintain the solution  level. In raft solution culture, plants are placed in a sheet of buoyant  plastic that is floated on the surface of the nutrient solution. That  way, the solution level never drops below the roots.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Continuous_flow_solution_culture">Continuous flow solution culture</span></h3>In  continuous flow solution culture the nutrient solution constantly flows  past the roots. It is much easier to automate than the static solution  culture because sampling and adjustments to the temperature and nutrient  concentrations can be made in a large storage tank that serves  potentially thousands of plants. A popular variation is the nutrient  film technique or NFT whereby a very shallow stream of water containing  all the dissolved nutrients required for plant growth is recirculated  past the bare roots of plants in a watertight thick root mat, which  develops in the bottom of the channel, has an upper surface which,  although moist, is in the air. Subsequently, there is an abundant supply  of oxygen to the roots of the plants. A properly designed NFT system is  based on using the right channel slope, the right flow rate and the  right channel length. The main advantage of the NFT system over other  forms of hydroponics is that the plant roots are exposed to adequate  supplies of water, oxygen and nutrients. In all other forms of  production there is a conflict between the supply of these requirements,  since excessive or deficient amounts of one results in an imbalance of  one or both of the others. NFT, because of its design, provides a system  where all three requirements for healthy plant growth can be met at the  same time, providing the simple concept of NFT is always remembered and  practised. The result of these advantages is that higher yields of high  quality produce are obtained over an extended period of cropping. A  downside of NFT is that it has very little buffering against  interruptions in the flow e.g. power outages, but overall, it is  probably one of the more productive techniques.<br /><br />The same design  characteristics apply to all conventional NFT systems. While slopes  along channels of 1:100 have been recommended, in practice it is  difficult to build a base for channels that is sufficiently true to  enable nutrient films to flow without ponding in locally depressed  areas. Consequently, it is recommended that slopes of 1:30 to 1:40 are  used. This allows for minor irregularities in the surface but, even with  these slopes, ponding and waterlogging may occur. The slope may be  provided by the floor, or benches or racks may hold the channels and  provide the required slope. Both methods are used and depend on local  requirements, often determined by the site and crop requirements.<br /><br />As  a general guide, flow rates for each gully should be 1 liter per  minute. At planting, rates may be half this and the upper limit of  2L/min appears about the maximum. Flow rates beyond these extremes are  often associated with nutritional problems. Depressed growth rates of  many crops have been observed when channels exceed 12 metres in length.  On rapidly growing crops, tests have indicated that, while oxygen levels  remain adequate, nitrogen may be depleted over the length of the gully.  Consequently, channel length should not exceed 10–15 metres. In  situations where this is not possible, the reductions in growth can be  eliminated by placing another nutrient feed half way along the gully and  reducing flow rates to 1L/min through each outlet.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Aeroponics">Aeroponics</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Aeroponics">Aeroponics</a></div><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Aeroponics">Aeroponics</a>  is a system where roots are continuously or discontinuously kept in an  environment saturated with fine drops (a mist or aerosol) of nutrient  solution. The method requires no substrate and entails growing plants  with their roots suspended in a deep air or growth chamber with the  roots periodically wetted with a fine mist of atomized nutrients.  Excellent aeration is the main advantage of aeroponics.<br /><br />Aeroponic  techniques have proved to be commercially successful for propagation,  seed germination, seed potato production, tomato production, leaf crops  and micro-greens.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> Since inventor <a class="new" href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/w/index.php?title=Richard_Stoner&action=edit&redlink=1">Richard Stoner</a>  commercialized aeroponic technology in 1983, aeroponics has been  implemented as an alternative to water intensive hydroponic systems  worldwide.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup>  The limitation of hydroponics is the fact that 1 kg of water can only  hold 8 mg of air, no matter if aerators are utilized or not.<br /><br />Another  distinct advantage of aeroponics over hydroponics is that any species  of plants can be grown in a true aeroponic system because the micro  environment of an aeroponic can be finely controlled. The limitation of  hydroponics is that only certain species of plants can survive for so  long in water before they become water logged. The advantage of  aeroponics is due to the fact that suspended aeroponic plants receive  100% of the available oxygen and carbon dioxide to the roots zone, stems  and leaves,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup>  thus accelerating biomass growth and reducing rooting times. NASA  research has shown that aeroponically grown plants have an 80% increase  in dry weight biomass (essential minerals) compared to hydroponically  grown plants. Aeroponics used 65% less water than hydroponics. NASA also  concluded that aeroponically grown plants requires ¼ the nutrient input  compared to hydroponics. Unlike hydroponically grown plants,  aeroponically grown plants will not suffer transplant shock when  transplanted to soil, and offers growers the ability to reduce the  spread of disease and pathogens.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup>  Aeroponics is also widely used in laboratory studies of plant  physiology and plant pathology. Aeroponic techniques have been given  special attention from <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/NASA">NASA</a> since a mist is easier to handle than a liquid in a zero gravity environment.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Passive_subirrigation">Passive subirrigation</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: Passive hydroponics</div>Passive subirrigation, also known as passive hydroponics or semi-hydroponics, is a method where plants are grown in an <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Inert">inert</a>  porous medium that transports water and fertilizer to the roots by  capillary action from a separate reservoir as necessary, reducing labor  and providing a constant supply of water to the roots. In the simplest  method, the pot sits in a shallow solution of fertilizer and water or on  a capillary mat saturated with nutrient solution. The various  hydroponic media available, such as expanded clay and coconut husk,  contain more air space than more traditional potting mixes, delivering  increased oxygen to the roots, which is important in <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Epiphyte">epiphytic</a> plants such as <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Orchidaceae">orchids</a> and <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Bromeliaceae">bromeliads</a>,  whose roots are exposed to the air in nature. Additional advantages of  passive hydroponics are the reduction of root rot and the additional  ambient humidity provided through evaporations.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Ebb_and_flow_.2F_Flood_and_drain_subirrigation">Ebb and flow / Flood and drain subirrigation</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Ebb+and+flow">Ebb and flow</a></div>In  its simplest form, there is a tray above a reservoir of nutrient  solution. The tray is either filled with growing medium (clay granules  being the most common) and planted directly, or pots of medium stand in  the tray. At regular intervals, a simple timer causes a pump to fill the  upper tray with nutrient solution, after which the solution drains back  down into the reservoir. This keeps the medium regularly flushed with  nutrients and air. Once the upper tray fills past the drain stop it  begins recirculating the water until the pump is turned off and the  water in the upper tray drains back into the reservoirs.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Run_to_Waste">Run to Waste</span></h3>In  a Run to Waste type system, nutrient and water solution is periodically  applied to the medium surface. This may be done in its simplest form,  by manually applying a nutrient and water solution one or more times per  day in a container of inert growing media, such as rockwool, perlite,  vermiculite, coco fibre, or sand. In a slightly more complex system, it  is automated with a delivery pump, a timer and irrigation tubing to  deliver nutrient solution with a delivery frequency that is governed by  the key parameters of plant size, plant growing stage, climate,  substrate, and substrate conductivity, pH, and water content.<br /><br />In a commercial setting, watering frequency is multi factorial and governed by pc or plc based controllers.<br /><br />Commercial  hydroponics production of large plants like tomatoes, cucumber and  peppers, use one form or another of run to waste hydroponics.<br /><br />In  environmentally responsible uses, the nutrient rich waste is collected  and processed through an on site filtration system to be used many  times, making the system very productive.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup><br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Deep_water_culture">Deep water culture</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Deep+water+culture">Deep water culture</a></div>The  hydroponic method of plant production by means of suspending the plant  roots in a solution of nutrient rich, oxygenated water. Traditional  methods favor the use of plastic buckets and large containers with the  plant contained in a net pot suspended from the centre of the lid and  the roots suspended in the nutrient solution. The solution is super  oxygenated from an air pump combined with porous stones. With this  method the plants grow much faster because of the high amount of oxygen  that the roots receive.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Growell_13-0"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-Growell-13"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup><br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Bubbleponics">Bubbleponics</span></h3>"Bubbleponics"  is the art of delivering highly oxygenated nutrient solution direct to  the root zone of plants. While Deep Water Culture involves the plant  roots hanging down into a reservoir of water below, the term  Bubbleponics describes a top-fed Deep Water Culture (DWC) hydroponic  system. Basically, the water is pumped from the reservoir up to the  roots (top feeding). The water is released over the plant's roots and  then runs back into the reservoir below in a constantly recirculating  system. As with Deep Water Culture, there is an airstone in the  reservoir which pumps air into the water via a hose from outside the  reservoir. The airstone helps add oxygen to the water. Both the airstone  and the water pump run 24 hours a day.<br /><br />The biggest advantages  with Bubbleponics over Deep Water Culture involve increased growth  during the first few weeks. With Deep Water Culture, there is a time  where the roots haven't reached the water yet. With Bubbleponics, the  roots get easy access to water from the beginning and will grow to the  reservoir below much more quickly than with a Deep Water Culture system.  Once the roots have reached the reservoir below, there is not a huge  advantage with Bubbleponics over Deep Water Culture. However, due to the  quicker growth in the beginning, a few weeks of grow time can be shaved  off.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup><br /><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Media">Media</span></h2>One  of the most obvious decisions hydroponic farmers have to make is which  medium they should use. Different media are appropriate for different  growing techniques.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Diahydro">Diahydro</span></h3>Sedimentary  rock medium that consists of the fossilized remains of diatoms.  Diahydro is extremely high in Silica (87-94%), an essential component  for the growth of plants and strengthening of cell walls.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Expanded_clay_.28Ex-clay.29">Expanded clay (Ex-clay)</span></h3><div class="outerpic tright" style="border-left: 15px solid white; width: 239px;"> <div class="pic" style="border: 1px solid gray; width: 224px;"><a href=""><img alt="" border="0" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://img.thefreedictionary.com/thumb/f/f5/Hydroton.jpg" width="220" /><img alt="Enlarge picture" border="0" height="12" src="http://img.thefreedictionary.com/wiki/enlarge.gif" style="float: right;" width="16" /></a> <div class="imgcaption"> Hydroton brand expanded clay pebbles.</div></div></div>Baked clay pellets, also known under the <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Trademark">trademarks</a> 'Hydroton' or 'Hydrokorrels' or 'LECA' (lightweight expanded <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Clay">clay</a>  aggregate), are suitable for hydroponic systems in which all nutrients  are carefully controlled in water solution. The clay pellets are inert, <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/PH">pH</a> neutral and do not contain any nutrient value.<br /><br />The clay is formed into round pellets and fired in rotary <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Kiln">kilns</a>  at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F). This causes the clay to expand, like popcorn,  and become porous. It is light in weight, and does not compact over  time. Shape of individual pellet can be irregular or uniform depending  on brand and manufacturing process. The manufacturers consider expanded  clay to be an ecologically sustainable and re-usable growing medium  because of its ability to be cleaned and sterilized, typically by  washing in solutions of white vinegar, <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Chlorine">chlorine</a> <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Bleach">bleach</a> or <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydrogen+peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a> (<span class="chemf" style="white-space: nowrap;">H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub></span>), and rinsing completely.<br /><br />A  less popular view is that clay pebbles are best not re-used even when  they are cleaned, due to root growth which may enter the medium.  Breaking open a clay pebble after a crop has been grown will reveal this  growth.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Rock_wool">Rock wool</span></h3>Rock  wool (mineral wool) is probably the most widely used medium in  hydroponics. Rock Wool is an inert substrate for both 'free drainage'  and recirculating systems. It is made from molten rock spun into cotton  candy-like fibers, resulting in a fibrous medium accessible to capillary  action that is not degraded by microbiological activity. Advantages are  that rock wool is light weight, free of pathogens, it has very low CEC  (Cations exchange capacity) making nutrients and water readily  available, and it comes in different fiber sizes and orientations.  Higher density rock wool also improves the wicking and dispersion of  moisture and nutrients, enticing roots into more areas of the medium,  and therefore increasing nutrient fueled sites for premium plant  production. After usage, rock wool can be recycled into bricks or into  new rock wool again, and or incorporated into soil because it is made of  natural rocks and contains great amount of fertilizer left within it.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Coir">Coir</span></h3><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Coco+Peat">Coco Peat</a>, also known as <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Coir">coir</a>  or coco, is the leftover material after the fibres have been removed  from the outermost shell (bolster) of the coconut. Coir is a 100%  natural grow and flowering medium. Coconut Coir is colonized with <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Trichoderma">trichoderma</a>  bacteria which protects roots and stimulates root growth. It is  extremely difficult to over water coir due to its perfect air to water  ratio, plant roots thrive in this environment, coir has a high cation  exchange, meaning it can store unused minerals to be released to the  plant as and when it requires it. Coir is available in many forms, most  common is coco peat which has the appearance and texture of soil but  contains no mineral content.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Perlite">Perlite</span></h3><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Perlite">Perlite</a>  is a volcanic rock that has been superheated into very lightweight  expanded glass pebbles. It is used loose or in plastic sleeves immersed  in the water. It is also used in potting soil mixes to decrease soil  density. Perlite has similar properties and uses to <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Vermiculite">vermiculite</a>  but generally holds more air and less water. If not contained, it can  float if flood and drain feeding is used. It is a fusion of granite,  obsidian, pumice and basalt. This volcanic rock is naturally fused at  high temperatures undergoing what is called <b>"Fusionic Metamorphosis"</b>.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Vermiculite">Vermiculite</span></h3>Like perlite, <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Vermiculite">vermiculite</a>  is another mineral that has been superheated until it has expanded into  light pebbles. Vermiculite holds more water than perlite and has a  natural "wicking" property that can draw water and nutrients in a  passive hydroponic system. If too much water and not enough air  surrounds the plants roots, it's possible to gradually lower the  medium's water-retention capability by mixing in increasing quantities  of perlite.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Sand">Sand</span></h3>Sand is cheap and easily available. However, it is heavy, does not hold water very well, and it must be sterilized between use.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Gravel">Gravel</span></h3>The  same type that is used in aquariums, though any small gravel can be  used, provided it is washed first. Indeed, plants growing in a typical  traditional gravel filter bed, with water circulated using electric  powerhead pumps, are in effect being grown using gravel hydroponics.  Gravel is inexpensive, easy to keep clean, drains well and won't become  waterlogged. However, it is also heavy, and if the system doesn't  provide continuous water, the plant roots may dry out.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Brick_shards">Brick shards</span></h3>Brick  shards have similar properties to gravel. They have the added  disadvantages of possibly altering the pH and requiring extra cleaning  before reuse.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Polystyrene_packing_peanuts">Polystyrene packing peanuts</span></h3>Polystyrene  packing peanuts are inexpensive, readily available, and have excellent  drainage. However, they can be too lightweight for some uses. They are  mainly used in closed tube systems. Note that <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Polystyrene">polystyrene</a> peanuts must be used; biodegradable packing peanuts will decompose into a sludge. Plants may absorb <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Styrene">styrene</a> and pass it to their consumers; this is a possible health risk.<br /><br /><h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Wood_fiber">Wood fiber</span></h3>Wood  fiber, produced from steam friction of wood, is a very efficient  organic substrate for hydroponics. It has the advantage that it keeps  its structure for a very long time.<br /><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Nutrient_solutions">Nutrient solutions</span></h2>Plant <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Nutrient">nutrients</a> used in hydroponics are dissolved in the water and are mostly in inorganic and <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Ion">ionic</a> form. Primary among the dissolved cations (positively charged ions) are Ca<sup>2+</sup> (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Calcium">calcium</a>), <span class="chemf" style="white-space: nowrap;">Mg<sup>2+</sup></span> (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Magnesium">magnesium</a>), and <span class="chemf" style="white-space: nowrap;">K<sup>+</sup></span> (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Potassium">potassium</a>); the major nutrient anions in nutrient solutions are <span class="chemf" style="white-space: nowrap;">NO<span style="display: inline-block; font-size: 85%; line-height: 1.2em; margin-bottom: -0.3em; text-align: left; vertical-align: -0.4em;">−<br /><br />3</span></span> (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Nitrate">nitrate</a>), <span class="chemf" style="white-space: nowrap;">SO<span style="display: inline-block; font-size: 85%; line-height: 1.2em; margin-bottom: -0.3em; text-align: left; vertical-align: -0.4em;">2−<br /><br />4</span></span> (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Sulfate">sulfate</a>), and <span class="chemf" style="white-space: nowrap;">H<sub>2</sub>PO<span style="display: inline-block; font-size: 85%; line-height: 1.2em; margin-bottom: -0.3em; text-align: left; vertical-align: -0.4em;">−<br /><br />4</span></span> (dihydrogen phosphate).<br /><br />Numerous  'recipes' for hydroponic solutions are available. Many use different  combinations of chemicals to reach similar total final compositions.  Commonly used chemicals for the macronutrients include <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Potassium+nitrate">potassium nitrate</a>, <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Calcium+nitrate">calcium nitrate</a>, potassium phosphate, and <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Magnesium+sulfate">magnesium sulfate</a>. Various micronutrients are typically added to hydroponic solutions to supply essential elements; among them are Fe (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Iron">iron</a>), Mn (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Manganese">manganese</a>), Cu (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Copper">copper</a>), Zn (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Zinc">zinc</a>), B (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Boron">boron</a>), Cl (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Chlorine">chlorine</a>), and Ni (<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Nickel">nickel</a>).  Chelating agents are sometimes used to keep Fe soluble. Many variations  of the nutrient solutions used by Arnon and Hoagland (see above) have  been styled 'modified Hoagland solutions' and are widely used. Variation  of different mixes throughout the plant life cycle, further optimizes  its nutritional value.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup>  Plants will change the composition of the nutrient solutions upon  contact by depleting specific nutrients more rapidly than others,  removing water from the solution, and altering the <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/PH">pH</a> by excretion of either acidity or alkalinity.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup>  Care is required not to allow salt concentrations to become too high,  nutrients to become too depleted, or pH to wander far from the desired  value.<br /><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Commercial">Commercial</span></h2><div class="outerpic tright" style="border-left: 15px solid white; width: 239px;"> <div class="pic" style="border: 1px solid gray; width: 224px;"><a href=""><img alt="" border="0" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://img.thefreedictionary.com/thumb/3/35/Aerogarden.jpg" width="220" /><img alt="Enlarge picture" border="0" height="12" src="http://img.thefreedictionary.com/wiki/enlarge.gif" style="float: right;" width="16" /></a> <div class="imgcaption"> An Aerogarden using hydroponics and <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Aeroponics">aeroponics</a>.</div></div></div>The largest commercial hydroponics facility in the world is Eurofresh Farms in <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Willcox%2c+Arizona">Willcox, Arizona</a>, which sold 200 million kilograms of tomatoes in 2008.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> Eurofresh has 318 hectares under glass and represents about a third of the commercial hydroponic greenhouse area in the U.S.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup>  Eurofresh does not consider its tomatoes organic, but they are  pesticide-free. They are grown in rockwool using the run to waste  technique.<br /><br />Some commercial installations use no <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Pesticide">pesticides</a> or <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Herbicide">herbicides</a>,  preferring integrated pest management techniques. There is often a  price premium willingly paid by consumers for produce which is labeled "<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Organic+farming">organic</a>". Some states in the USA require soil as an essential to obtain <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Organic+certification">organic certification</a>.  There are also overlapping and somewhat contradictory rules established  by the US Federal Government, so some food grown with hydroponics can  be certified <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Organic+farming">organic</a>.<br /><br />Hydroponics also saves water; it uses as little as <span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>&fras1;<sub>20</sub></span> the amount as a regular farm to produce the same amount of food. The <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Water+table">water table</a> can be impacted by the water use and <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Surface+runoff">run-off</a>  of chemicals from farms, but hydroponics may minimize impact as well as  having the advantage that water use and water returns are easier to  measure. This can save the farmer money by allowing reduced water use  and the ability to measure consequences to the land around a farm.<br /><br />To  increase plant growth, lighting systems such as metal halide for  growing stage only or high pressure sodium for  growing/flowering/blooming stage are used to lengthen the day or to  supplement natural sunshine if it is scarce. Metal halide emits more  light in the blue spectrum, making it ideal for plant growth but is  harmful to unprotected skin and can cause skin cancer. High pressure  sodium emits more light in the red spectrum, meaning that it is best  suited for supplementing natural sunshine and can be used throughout the  growing cycle. However, these lighting systems require large amounts of  electricity to operate, making efficiency and safety very critical.<br /><br />The environment in a hydroponics <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Greenhouse">greenhouse</a>  is tightly controlled for maximum efficiency and this new mindset is  called soil-less/controlled-environment agriculture (CEA). With this  growers can make ultra-premium foods anywhere in the world, regardless  of temperature and growing seasons. Growers monitor the temperature,  humidity, and <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/PH">pH</a> level constantly.<br /><br />Hydroponics have been used to enhance vegetables to provide more nutritional value. A hydroponic farmer in <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Virginia">Virginia</a> has developed a <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Potassium">potassium</a>  enriched head of lettuce, scheduled to be widely available in April  2007. Grocers in test markets have said that the lettuce sells "very  well", and the farmers claim that their hydroponic lettuce uses 90% less  water than traditional soil farming.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19"><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup><br /><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Advancements">Advancements</span></h2>With  pest problems reduced, and nutrients constantly fed to the roots,  productivity in hydroponics is high, although plant growth can be  limited by the low levels of <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Carbon+dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>  in the atmosphere, or limited light exposure. To increase yield  further, some sealed greenhouses inject carbon dioxide into their  environment to help growth (<span class="chemf" style="white-space: nowrap;">CO<sub>2</sub></span> enrichment), add lights to lengthen the day, or control vegetative growth etc.<br /><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2><ul><li><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Aeroponics">Aeroponics</a></li><br /><li><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Aquaponics">Aquaponics</a></li><br /><li>Folkewall</li><br /><li><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Grow+box">Grow box</a></li><br /><li><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Growroom">Growroom</a></li><br /><li>Organoponics</li><br /><li>Passive hydroponics</li><br /><li><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Vertical+farming">Vertical farming</a></li><br /><li><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Xeriscaping">Xeriscaping</a></li><br /></ul><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2><div class="reflist references-small references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2;"> <div class="references"> <ol><li id="cite_note-references-0">^ <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-references_0-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-references_0-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Douglas, James S. <u>Hydroponics</u>. 5th ed. Bombay: Oxford UP, 1975. 1-3.</li><br /><li id="cite_note-1"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <a class="external free" href="http://www.techno-preneur.net/information-desk/sciencetech-magazine/2007/jan07/Hydroponics.pdf" rel="nofollow">http://www.techno-preneur.net/information-desk/sciencetech-magazine/2007/jan07/Hydroponics.pdf</a></li><br /><li id="cite_note-2"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> Turner, Bambi. "How Hydroponics Works." 20 October 2008. HowStuffWorks.com. <<a class="external free" href="http://home.howstuffworks.com/hydroponics.htm" rel="nofollow">http://home.howstuffworks.com/hydroponics.htm</a>> 17 September 2009.</li><br /><li id="cite_note-3"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <a class="external text" href="http://pmb.berkeley.edu/newpmb/faculty/arnon/Hoagland_Arnon_Solution.pdf"><i>The Water Culture Method for Growing Plants Without Soil</i></a></li><br /><li id="cite_note-4"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> <a class="external autonumber" href="http://www.hydroponicsgroup.com/index.php?_a=viewDoc&docId=5">[1]</a> Hydroponics Group Industry</li><br /><li id="cite_note-5"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-5">^</a></b> <span class="citation web">10:49 a.m. ET (2009-03-04). <a class="external text" href="http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/29491388/">"Alfalfa Sprouts Source Of Salmonella, Experts Say - Omaha- msnbc.com"</a>. MSNBC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2009-03-14</span>.</span></li><br /><li id="cite_note-6"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <span class="citation book"><a class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Mwv_jnw6QQwC&pg=PT112&lpg=PT112&dq=verticillium+wilt+in+hydroponics&source=bl&ots=P1qhxpiqW_&sig=ikcfSN1w3c6RZEYm0jMFsF-YU4s"><i>Winterborne, J., "Hydroponics: Indoor Horticulture",Published by Pukka Press, 2005, p113</i></a>.</span></li><br /><li id="cite_note-7"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.sivb.org/InVitroReport/42-2/research.htm">"Research  News, "Commercial Aeroponics: The Grow Anywere Story", In Vitro Report -  An Official Publication of the Society In Vitro Biology, Issue 42.2,  April–June 2008"</a>.</span></li><br /><li id="cite_note-8"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.biocontrols.com/aero28.html">"Stoner, R., "Aeroponics Versus Bed and Hydroponic Propagation", Florist Review, Vol 173 no.4477, September 22, 1983"</a>.</span></li><br /><li id="cite_note-9"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> Stoner, R.J (1983). <i>Rooting in Air.</i> Greenhouse Grower Vol I No. 11</li><br /><li id="cite_note-10"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-10">^</a></b> <a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Aeroponics">Aeroponics</a></li><br /><li id="cite_note-11"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <a class="external free" href="http://www.grodan.com/solutions/water+content+meter" rel="nofollow">http://www.grodan.com/solutions/water+content+meter</a></li><br /><li id="cite_note-12"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-12">^</a></b> <a class="external free" href="http://www.newagehydro.com/shop/faq.php" rel="nofollow">http://www.newagehydro.com/shop/faq.php</a></li><br /><li id="cite_note-Growell-13"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-Growell_13-0">^</a></b> <span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.growell.co.uk/pr/60/Deep-Water-Culture-It-s-all-about-the-bubbles-.html">"Deep Water Culture"</a>. <a class="new" href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/w/index.php?title=Growell&action=edit&redlink=1">Growell</a>.</span></li><br /><li id="cite_note-14"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-14">^</a></b> <span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://growweedeasy.com/high-yield-bubbleponics-technique">"Growing Cannabis with Bubbleponics"</a>. GrowWeedEasy.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2010-09-27</span>.</span></li><br /><li id="cite_note-15"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-15">^</a></b> Coston, D.C., G.W. Krewer, R.C. Owing and E.G. Denny (1983). <i>Air Rooting of Peach Semihardwood Cutting." HortScience 18(3): 323.</i></li><br /><li id="cite_note-16"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> <a class="external text" href="http://www.dutchmaster.com.au/?language=english&page=growers_guide&topic=ph_info">Understanding pH</a> DutchMaster Hydroponics</li><br /><li id="cite_note-17"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-17">^</a></b> Kenney, Brad P. "Success Under Glass." <u>American Vegetable Grower</u> 1 May 2006: 12-13.</li><br /><li id="cite_note-18"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-18">^</a></b> Sorenson, Dan. "Pampered tomatoes." <u>Arizona daily star</u> 23 April 2006.<a class="external autonumber" href="http://www.azstarnet.com/allheadlines/125882.php">[2]</a></li><br /><li id="cite_note-19"><b><a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics#cite_ref-19">^</a></b> Murphy, Katie. "Farm Grows Hydroponic Lettuce." <u>The Observer</u> 1 December 2006 <a class="external autonumber" href="http://www.observernews.com/stories/current/news/120106/Lettuce.shtml">[3]</a></li><br /></ol></div></div>D&T HYDROPONIC <a class="external free" href="http://dthydroponic.com/" rel="nofollow">http://dthydroponic.com</a><br /><br /><h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2><ul><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.ag.arizona.edu/ceac">Controlled Environment Agriculture Center, University of Arizona</a></li><br /><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.makehydroponics.com/">Hydroponic Resources, Online Guide</a></li><br /><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.hydroponicsonline.com/lessons/table-of-contents.htm">Hydroponic Lesson Plans</a></li><br /><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.soils.wisc.edu/courses/soils326/hydropon.htm">Barak, P. 2002. Essential Elements for Plant Growth: Hydroponics.</a></li><br /><li><a class="external text" href="http://ag.arizona.edu/PLS/faculty/MERLE.html">Jensen, M.H. 1997. Hydroponics. <i>HortScience</i> 32</a></li><br /><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/html_pubs/hydro/hydrotoc.html"><i>Hydroponics as a Hobby: Growing Plants Without Soil.</i> University of Illinois, Circular 844</a></li><br /><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.usu.edu/cpl/research_hydroponics.htm">Utah State University Hydroponics</a></li><br /><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.schundler.com/mcmurdo.htm">Hydroponics at McMurdo Station Antarctica</a></li><br /><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.cornellcea.com/handbook_home.htm">Cornell University Commercial Hydroponic Lettuce, Spinach and Pak Choi Grower's Handbooks</a></li><br /><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/Ozone/mbr/casestudies/volume3/hydropn3.html">Hydroponics and Soilless Cultures on Artificial Substrates as an Alternative to Methyl Bromide Soil Fumigation</a></li><br /><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.hydroponics.eu/hydroponics-setup.asp">Essential elements for hydroponics set up</a></li><br /></ul></div><span style="font-size: 1px;"><br clear="all" /></span><div class="brand_copy">This article is copied from an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroponics" target="_blank">article on Wikipedia®</a>  - the free encyclopedia created and edited by online user community.  The text was not checked or edited by anyone on our staff. Although the  vast majority of the Wikipedia® encyclopedia articles provide accurate  and timely information please do not assume the accuracy of any  particular article. This article is distributed under the terms of <a href="http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>.</div><br /><br /><br /><br />How to thank TFD for its existence? <a href="mailto:?subject=TheFreeDictionary&body=">Tell a friend about us</a>, add a link to this page, <a href="http://fusion.google.com/ig/sharetab?source=atgt&atr=The%20Free%20Dictionary&n_32=url%3Dhttp%253A//www.thefreedictionary.com/_/WoD/search-module.xml%26row%3D1%26sect%3D1&n_32=url%3Dhttp%253A//www.thefreedictionary.com/_/WoD/wod-module.xml%26row%3D1%26sect%3D2&n_32=url%3Dhttp%253A//www.thefreedictionary.com/_/WoD/hangman-module.xml%26row%3D1%26sect%3D3&n_32=url%3Dhttp%253A//www.thefreedictionary.com/_/WoD/history-module.xml%26row%3D2%26sect%3D1&n_32=url%3Dhttp%253A//www.thefreedictionary.com/_/WoD/spellbee-module.xml%26row%3D2%26sect%3D2&n_32=url%3Dhttp%253A//www.thefreedictionary.com/_/WoD/matchup-module.xml%26row%3D2%26sect%3D3&n_32=url%3Dhttp%253A//www.thefreedictionary.com/_/WoD/quote-module.xml%26row%3D3%26sect%3D1&n_32=url%3Dhttp%253A//www.thefreedictionary.com/_/WoD/birthday-module.xml%26row%3D3%26sect%3D2&n_32=url%3Dhttp%253A//www.thefreedictionary.com/_/WoD/article-module.xml%26row%3D3%26sect%3D3&n_32=url%3Dhttp%253A//www.thefreedictionary.com/_/WoD/news-module.xml%26row%3D4%26sect%3D1">add the site to iGoogle</a>, or visit <a href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/lookup.htm">webmaster's page for free fun content</a>.<br /><br /><br /><br />Link to this page: <input readonly="readonly" size="87" style="direction: ltr;" value="<a href="http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Hydroponics">Hydroponics</a>" /><br /><br /></div>

Hydroponics

For the Soup Dragons album, see Hydrophonic. NASA researcher checking hydroponic onions with Bibb lettuce to his left and radishes to the...